Why Drug Test?

Employee drug testing is a company policy that can be viewed as skirting the rights of an employee to privacy as much as it supports the employees’ rights to a safe work environment.

Federal organizations can tell an employer how to create and operate a physical business environment. Even the smallest of businesses have to adhere to anti-discrimination and anti-harassment policies set by state and/or federal regulations. These issues seem more black and white. An employee’s off color jokes at the weekend cookout is acceptable as long as he/she ends this unacceptable practice at 8:00 am on Monday morning. We can turn a blind eye to unwanted or inappropriate personal comments toward another employee as long as the comments don’t start until 4:01 pm. In today’s business environment we are sometimes willing to toil in the grey area of “as long as it’s not at work” in want of steady workers, more productivity, and higher profits. Work place policies are simple enough to write. Why then, does the concept of a drug testing policy create levels of discomfort to such a degree that for some companies, drug testing has been put on a back burner where it’s been simmering for years?

The answers are complex. Most employers don’t have a problem suspending or even terminating an employee who reports to work reeling and reeking of alcohol. This is a comfortable decision because it is happening during the time of the day when business can dictate personal use of even legal substance. Sanctioning impaired employees during the work day, whose behavior poises threats to them, co-workers, and frankly, the “bottom line”, is appropriate to even the most liberal of employers. Pennsylvania’s Department of Labor and Industry upholds denials to Workers Compensation benefits if an employee fails or refuses a random drug test and doesn’t even ask if a drug testing policy exists. The DOT (Department of Transportation) defines a refusal as not producing a urine specimen within three hours of request, as well as outright refusal to do so at all.

Dictating behavior outside of scheduled work hours seems to make us uncomfortable. Many adult Americans fear the encroachment of “Big Brother”, which has been exacerbated with the technology age. We leave our comfort zone when we establish drug testing programs which cannot specifically tell us when the employee used drug or even if he/she is “high”. In spite of the illegality or legality of the substance, isn’t it a personal choice if done on the employee’s “own time”?

The myth that what one does on their own time doesn’t concern the employer has been well disputed in a myriad of longitudinal research from the US Postal Department, to General Motors, to the Department of Transportations. These giants of industry recognized early on that even “recreational” drug use impacts of the productivity of the employee, the overall safety of other employees, and the “bottom line”.

Following are reports from a number of sources, but certainly not all that speak to the impact of substance abuse on business:

Drug abuse has a major impact on workplace crime. Employees who have a $1,000-$3,000 a month narcotic habit do not usually support that habit with "just" their paycheck. General Motors, for example, has arrested over 500 employees for dealing drugs on the job! Crime in the form of stealing from co-workers, blackmail, ties to organized crime, and the violence associated with drug dealing all threaten a healthy and safety workplace environment wherever drug abusers are employed. Further, the workplace often provides the perfect cover for buying and selling drugs.

In fact, drug-abuse treatment professionals state that a drug abuser's "JOB" is usually the one thing abusers will do ANYTHING to hold on to, for several reasons:

1.  Denial - employees convince themselves that people who "work" (like themselves) are not addicted.
2.  Money - employees need a consistent paycheck to help support their drug habits.
3.  Opportunity - employees are provided with, both chances to steal (from their employer and from fellow employees) and also to deal drugs that they would not have if they were unemployed.

IT'S A "GIVEN": If you have drug users in your company, you probably have drug dealers in your company!

Employee drug-use was documented in a study which found that, of those employees seeking help on a "cocaine hotline":

1. 64% admitted that drugs had adversely affected their job performance,
2.  44% said they had sold drugs to other employees,
3.  18% said they had stolen from co-workers to support their habits.

Why should ANY employer have to put up with this at a business that THEY OWN?

A study by the Federal Government found that those who illicitly used drugs are:

1. 3.6 times more likely to injure themselves or another person in a workplace accident,
2.  5 times more likely to be injured in an accident off the job which, in turn, affects their attendance and/or performance on the job,
3. 5 times more likely to file a Workers' Compensation claim,
4.  One-third less productive than non-drug using employees,
5.  Incur 300% higher medical costs than non-drug using employees.

What are employees’ views about workplace drug testing?

A recent national Gallup survey of employees demonstrated an increasing intolerance among employees for drug abuse and drug abusers, and an acceptance of employers taking strong steps to provide drug-free workplaces. The respondents said:

1. 28% of employees who were asked what they thought the greatest problem was facing the United States today answered "drugs." That response was given more than two-and-a-half times more frequently than the second most common answer.
2.  22% of employees whose companies have drug testing programs feel it is "not strong enough," while only 2% think it is "too strong."
3.  97+% of employees favor drug testing in the workplace at least under some circumstances.

Impact of Drug Abuse

Drug abuse affects all citizens in the form of higher taxes, higher insurance rates, more rime, higher health care costs, and higher consumer prices. so affects most of us as employees. A major telecommunications company reports that 40% of its health care costs are attributable to substance abuse!

Does drug testing work?

YES! As a result of advertised, high-profile drug-abuse prevention programs enacted at many companies, many drug users don’t even apply there (at companies that do drug testing). Some of those who do apply will then stop using for fear of being caught, and some who are later "caught" will often undergo treatment and go straight.

There are numerous success stories in both the private and public sectors, but perhaps none as dramatic as the U.S. Navy’s: a decrease since the 1980’s to under 4% (down from 28%) of its active personnel engaged in illicit drug use (i.e., found positive when tested). This is specifically due to Navy’s implementation back in the 80’s of a comprehensive drug abuse prevention program – including monthly random drug testing of all active and reserve duty personnel- that continues even today.

Drug Detection

Employee drug testing is a major part of a drug-free work environment. In addition, employee drug testing can save a company thousands of dollars in sick days and worker's compensation claims and unemployment benefits as well as protect your workers. Post-hire employee testing is a good start for insuring a drug-free workplace.

“WHAT EVERY EMPLOYER SHOULD KNOW ABOUT DRUG-ABUSE IN THE WORKPLACE!” (A primer for the uninformed or misinformed!) Copyright © 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 OHS, Inc. All rights Reserved. www.ohsinc.com

Another Federal Government survey revealed that the construction industry has some of the highest rates of alcohol and drug abuse. Among full-time construction workers between the ages of 18 and 49:

•  More than 12 percent report illicit drug use during the past 30 days.
•  Almost 21 percent report illicit drug use during the past year.
•  Approximately 13 percent admit to heavy alcohol use.1

Rates of substance abuse among different types of personnel within the construction industry are as follows:2

Position	Current Illicit Drug Use (%)	Past Year Illicit Drug Use (%)	Current Heavy Alcohol Use (%)
Construction Laborers	12.8	25.4	19.9
Construction Supervisors	17.2	25.9	12.7
Other Construction Workers	17.3	23.4	20.6

Endnotes:
1 Department of Health and Human Services Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (1996). Drug Use Among US Workers: Prevalence and Trends by Occupation and Industry Categories. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services.
2 Ibid.

A Federal government survey revealed that the hospitality industry, which includes hotel/motel companies, eating and drinking places and those companies related to them and their operations, experiences some of the highest rates of alcohol and drug abuse.

Among employees in the hotel/motel sector:

• 9.3 percent admit to using illicit drugs during the past month
• 17 percent admit to using illicit drugs during the past year.
• Nearly 10 percent admit to heavy alcohol use.1

Among employees at eating and drinking establishments:

• More than 16 percent admit to using illicit drugs during the past month.
• 28 percent admit to using illicit drugs during the past year.
• More than 15 percent admit to heavy alcohol use.2

Broken down by a few specific occupations, workers report substance abuse at the following levels:3

Occupation	Current Illicit Drug Use (%)	Past Year Illicit Drug Use (%)	Current Heavy Alcohol Use (%)
Food Preparers	16.3	27.6	16.3
Grounds Keepers	11.4	21.0	9.8
Janitors	13.0	20.6	10.3
Maids	7.9	12.8	3.6
Waiters/Waitresses	15.4	28.9	12.1

From large multinational corporations to small locally owned hotels, motels and restaurants, hospitality industry employers across the country are implementing drug-free workplace programs to ensure productive workforces and safe workplaces — company features that ultimately result in increased profitability and success.

Endnotes:
1 US Department of Health and Human Services Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (1996). Drug Use among U.S. Workers: Prevalence and Trends by Occupation and Industry Categories. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.

A Federal government survey revealed workplace substance abuse is a significant problem in the retail industry. Among full-time retail employees between the ages of 18 and 49:

• 10.8 percent report that they have used illicit drugs in the past month.
• About 22 percent report that they have used illicit drugs in the last year.
• 8.8 percent report heavy alcohol use.1

Rates of substance abuse among workers employed in several different areas of retail  industry are as follows:2

Sector	Current Illicit Drug Use (%)	Past Year Illicit Drug Use (%)	Current Heavy Alcohol Use (%)
Apparel and Shoe Stores	3.9	12.3	1.5
Auto Supply Stores and Gas Stations	11.2	22.2	13.2
Department Stores	5.7	13.1	3.5
Eating and Drinking Places	16.3	28.0	15.4
Furniture and Appliance Stores	14.4	20.2	6.2
Grocery Stores	9.3	17.2	5.8
Other Retail Stores	5.9	12.8	4.7

Endnotes:
1 US Department of Health and Human Services Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (1996). Drug Use among U.S. Workers: Prevalence and Trends by Occupation and Industry Categories. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services.
2 Ibid.

A Federal government survey revealed that rates of substance abuse among four different types of personnel within the transportation industry are as follows:1

Occupation	Past-Year Illicit Drug Use (%)	Heavy Alcohol Use (%)
Truck Drivers (light)	18.9	15.1
Vehicle Repairers	17.0	14.9
Truck Drivers (heavy)	16.4	13.3
Bus Drivers	13.6	6.7

To address the rising rate of substance abuse in the US and the general safety of all people who travel within the country, Congress passed the Omnibus Transportation Employee Testing Act of 1991. The Act requires transportation industry employers to establish and maintain alcohol- and drug-free workplace programs that incorporate both alcohol and drug testing.
Regarding their employers' efforts to prevent workplace substance abuse, transportation industry workers report:

• 76.1 percent provide workers with information about alcohol and drugs.
• 73.6 percent have written policies about employee alcohol or drug use.
• 52.9 percent provide access to Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) for employees who have drug or alcohol problems.2

Transportation workers report that the following types of drug testing are prevalent throughout the industry:

• At Hiring (62.7%)
• Random (52.5%)
• Upon Suspicion (48.9%)
• Post-Accident (58.8%)3

From large international corporations to relatively small local contractors, transportation firms are implementing and maintaining drug-free workplace programs to ensure productive workforces and safe workplaces — company features that ultimately result in increased profitability and success.

Endnotes:
1 US Department of Health and Human Services Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (1999). Worker Drug Use and Workplace Policies and Programs: Results from the 1994 and 1997 NHSDA. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.

Health Care Industry

Despite fairly widespread belief, the health care industry is not immune to workplace substance abuse. Health care industry workers who abuse alcohol and other drugs threaten the safety and well being of not only themselves, but their colleagues and a countless number of patients. By keeping America's hospitals, clinics and other heath-related establishments free of substance abuse, industry administrators work to ensure the health of their staff and clients and further their company's reputation as a provider of high-quality services in which patients and their loved ones can place their trust.

A Federal government survey revealed that more than 4 percent of nursing home employees and more than five percent of hospital and other health services employees report heavy drinking.1

Rates of substance abuse among different types of personnel within the health care industry are as follows:2

Position	Current Illicit Drug Use (%)	Past Year Illicit Drug Use (%)	Current Heavy Drug Use (%)
Physicians, Dentists, Optometrists	--	19.8	--
Nurses and Nursing Aides	5.5	12.8	2.8
Dental and Health Aides	2.8	9.9	2.3
Therapists	4.0	7.2	3.5
Clinical and Laboratory Technologists	4.3	8.9	2.2

Endnotes:
E1 US Department of Health and Human Services Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (1996). Drug Use among U.S. Workers: Prevalence and Trends by Occupation and Industry Categories. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services.
2 Ibid.

Health Care and Social Assistance Industries*

*The following information was sourced from the Worker Substance Use and Workplace Policies and Programs report published by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.[i] For an explanation on how these statistics were compiled, click to the Industry and Occupation Categories page on the U.S. Department of Labor’s Working Partners for an Alcohol- and Drug-Free Workplace site.

Please note that an abbreviation or acronym for the industry may be used in the tables and charts below.

• Illicit Drug Use refers to the use of any of these drugs in any of the 30 days prior to the interview: marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP], lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD] and Ecstasy [MDMA]), heroin, or prescription-type psychotherapeutics used nonmedically, which includes stimulants, sedatives, tranquilizers and pain relievers.
• Heavy Alcohol Use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion (i.e., at the same time or within a couple of hours of each other) on each of 5 or more days in the 30 days prior to the interview.
• Dependence or abuse is based on the definition found in the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) and applies to the 12-month period prior to the interview.

WORKPLACE TESTING
For Drug or Alcohol Use among Full-Time Workers Aged 18-64

[i] Larson, S.L., Eyerman, J., Foster, M.S., and Gfroerer, J.C. (2007). Worker Substance Use and Workplace Policies and Programs (DHHS Publication No. SMA 07-4273, Analytic Series A-29). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies.

General Workplace Impact

Substance Use and Abuse in America in 2007

• In 2007, an estimated 19.9 million Americans were current illicit drug users. The rate of current illicit drug use among Americans has remained stable since 2002, hovering around 8 percent.1
• Nearly 58 million people, or more than one-fifth (23.3 percent) of the population age 12 and over, participated in binge drinking (having five or more drinks on the same occasion at least once in the past 30 days). About 17 million people or 6.9 percent of the population age 12 and over, reported heavy drinking (defined as binge drinking on at least 5 of the past 30 days).2
• Among youth ages 12-17, current illicit drug use steadily declined in recent years (down from 11.6 percent in 2002 to 9.5 percent in 2007). Moreover, the rate of binge drinking among youth ages 12-17 decreased from 10.3 percent in 2006 to 9.7 percent in 2007.3
• However, among adults ages 50-59, current illicit drug use increased from 2.7 percent to 5.0 percent between 2002 and 2007, as the baby boom cohort continued to enter this age bracket.4
• In 2007, an estimated 22.3 million persons (9.0 percent of the population age 12 and over) were classified with substance dependence or abuse in the past year. Of these, 15.5 million abused or were dependent on alcohol, 3.7 million abused or were dependent on illicit drugs, and 3.2 million abused or were dependent on both alcohol and illicit drugs.5

Substance Use and Abuse among Workers in 2007
Substance use and abuse is a concern for employers. Most drug users, binge and heavy drinkers, and people with substance use disorders are employed.

• In 2007, of the 17.4 million current illicit drug users age 18 and over, 13.1 million (75.3 percent) were employed.6
• Similarly, among 55.3 million adult binge drinkers, 44.0 million (79.4 percent) were employed, and among 16.4 million persons reporting heavy alcohol use, 13.1 million (79.6 percent) were employed.7
• Of the 20.4 million adults classified with substance dependence or abuse, 12.3 million (60.4 percent) were employed full-time.8

The prevalence of substance use among workers is lower than the prevalence among the unemployed, but a sizeable number of employed individuals use drugs and alcohol.

• In 2007, 8.4 percent of those employed full-time were current illicit drug users, and 8.8 percent reported heavy alcohol use.9

Substance Use Disorder - Worker Age May be a Factor

• According to 2002-2004 data, among full-time employed persons diagnosed with a substance use disorder, those ages 18-25 had the highest rates of substance use disorder relative to those in other age categories.10  Findings for 2005-2007 have not been published as of mid-October in 2008.
• Illicit drug use for the ages 18-25 group (not accounting for employment) has remained relatively stable from 2004 (19.4 million) to 2007 (19.7 million) while specific rates of use dropped significantly from 2006 to 2007 for several drugs: methamphetamine use fell 33% from 0.6% to 0.4%, ecstasy use fell 30% from 1% to 0.7%, stimulant use fell 21% from 1.4% to 1.1%, and cocaine use fell by 23% from 2.2% to 1.7%. Declining rates of use for methamphetamine and cocaine have been noted in the workplace, with drug test positives for methamphetamine declining 50% since 2005 and cocaine dropping 19 percent in 2007 to the lowest levels in the history of this testing system. At the same time that these positive indicators are noted among the age 18-25 group, the rate of nonmedical use of prescription pain relievers rose 12% to 4.6% in 2007. In the ages 50-59 group (not accounting for employment), illicit drug use has grown substantially from 2004 (3.8 percent) to 2007 (5.0 percent).11

Substance Use and Abuse in Particular Industries
Employers in certain industries may be more at risk for employee substance use and abuse.

• The major industry groups with the highest prevalence of illicit drug use in the past month were accommodations and food services and construction, and those with the lowest prevalence were the utilities industry, educational services, and public administration.12
• About 16.9 percent of workers in the accommodations and food services industry and 13.7 percent of workers in the construction industry reported illicit drug use in the past month.13
• About 3.8 percent of workers in the utilities industry, 4.0 percent of workers in the educational services industry, and 4.1 percent of workers in the public administration industry reported past month illicit drug use.14
• The major industry groups with the highest prevalence of heavy alcohol use were construction, arts, entertainment and recreation, and mining, and those with the lowest were health care and social assistance and educational services.
• About 15.9 percent of workers in the construction industry and 13.6 percent of workers in the arts, entertainment and recreation industry reported heavy alcohol use in the past month.
• In contrast, 4.0 percent of workers in the educational services industry and 4.3 percent of workers in the health care and social assistance industry reported heavy alcohol use.
• Likewise, workers in certain occupations may be more at risk for problems with substance use and abuse.
• Workers in food service and construction occupations showed a higher prevalence of illicit drug use during the past month than other occupational groups, while those in protective service, community and social services, and education and related services occupations showed the lowest prevalence rates.15
• About 17.4 percent of food service workers and 15.1 percent of construction workers used illicit drugs in the past month.16
• About 3.4 percent of protective service workers, 4.0 percent of community and social services workers, and 4.1 percent of education, training, and library workers used illicit drugs in the past month.17
• Construction occupations and installation, maintenance, and repair occupations showed higher prevalence of heavy alcohol use in the past month, while community and social services occupations showed the lowest prevalence rates.18
• About 17.8 percent of construction and extraction workers and 14.7 percent of installation, maintenance, and repair workers reported heavy alcohol use in the past month.19
• In contrast, 2.8 percent of community and social services workers reported heavy alcohol use in the past month.20

America’s Workplaces at Risk
Substance use and abuse is not necessarily limited to after work hours, leading to the risk of impairment on the job.

• An estimated 3.1 percent of employed adults actually used illicit drugs before reporting to work or during work hours at least once in the past year, with about 2.9 percent working while under the influence of an illicit drug.21
• An estimated 1.8 percent of employed adults consumed alcohol before coming to work, and 7.1 percent drank alcohol during the workday.22
• An estimated 1.7 percent of employed adults worked while under the influence of alcohol, and 9.2 percent worked with a hangover in the past year.23

Regardless of where illicit drug use or heavy alcohol use takes place, workers reporting substance use and abuse have higher rates of turnover and absenteeism.

• Workers reporting heavy alcohol use or illicit drug use, as well as workers reporting dependence on or abuse of alcohol or illicit drugs, are more likely to have worked for more than three employers in the past year.24
• Likewise, those workers are more likely to have skipped work more than two days in the past month.25
• Workers reporting illicit drug use or dependence on or abuse of alcohol or illicit drugs were also more likely to have missed more than two days of work due to illness or injury.26

Furthermore, the impact of employee substance use and abuse is a problem that extends beyond the substance-using employee. There is evidence that co-worker job performance and attitudes are negatively affected.27 Workers have reported being put in danger, having been injured, or having had to work harder, to re-do work, or to cover for a co-worker as a result of a fellow employee’s drinking.28
Small Businesses Most Vulnerable
Smaller firms may be particularly disadvantaged by worker substance use and abuse. For example, while about half of all U.S. workers work for small and medium sized businesses (those with fewer than 500 employees)29, about nine in ten employed current illicit drug users and almost nine in ten employed heavy drinkers work for small and medium sized firms.30 Likewise, about nine in ten full-time workers with alcohol or illicit drug dependence or abuse work for small and medium size firms.31 However, smaller firms are generally less likely to test for substance use.32
Smaller businesses are less likely to have programs in place to combat the problem, yet they are more likely to be the employer-of-choice for illicit drug users. Individuals who can’t adhere to a drug-free workplace policy seek employment at firms that don’t have one, and the cost of just one error caused by an impaired employee can devastate a small company.
Working Partners for an Alcohol- and Drug-Free Workplace
The good news is that there are steps businesses can take to minimize the risks of worker alcohol use, and there are resources to help them do so. The U.S. Department of Labor can help employers develop drug-free workplace programs that educate employees about the dangers of alcohol and encourage those with alcohol problems to seek help.
___________
Endnotes:
1 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies (2008). Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings (NSDUH Series H-34, DHHS Publication No. SMA 08-4343). Rockville, MD.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
10Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2006). “Substance Use Disorder and Serious Psychological Distress, by Employment Status” The NSDUH Report Issue 38.
11Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies (2008). Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings (NSDUH Series H-34, DHHS Publication No. SMA 08-4343). Rockville, MD.
12Larson, S.L., Eyerman, J., Foster, M.S., and Gfroerer, J.C. (2007). Worker Substance Use and Workplace Policies and Programs (DHHS Publication No. SMA 07-4273, Analytic Series A-29). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies.
13 Ibid.
14Ibid.
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid.
21 Frone, M. R. (2006). Prevalence and distribution of illicit drug use in the workforce and in the workplace: Findings and implications from a U.S. national survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 856-869.
22 Frone, M. R. (2006). Prevalence and distribution of alcohol use and impairment in the workplace: A U.S. national survey. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 76, 147-156.
23 Ibid.
24 Larson, S.L., Eyerman, J., Foster, M.S., and Gfroerer, J.C. (2007). Worker Substance Use and Workplace Policies and Programs (DHHS Publication No. SMA 07-4273, Analytic Series A-29). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies.
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid.
27 Lehman, W. E. K., Farabee, D. J., & Bennett, J. B. (1998). Perceptions and correlates of co-worker substance use. Employee Assistance Quarterly, 13(4), 1-22.
28 Mangione, T.W., et al. (1998). New Perspectives for Worksite Alcohol Strategies: Results from a Corporate Drinking Study. Boston, MA: JSI Research and Training Institute.
29 Statistics of U.S. Businesses, 2005, U.S. Census Bureau, available at http://www.census.gov/csd/susb/index.html
30 Larson, S.L., Eyerman, J., Foster, M.S., and Gfroerer, J.C. (2007). Worker Substance Use and Workplace Policies and Programs (DHHS Publication No. SMA 07-4273, Analytic Series A-29). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.

The good news is that more and more construction, hospitality, retail, and transportation, industry employers, ranging from large multinational corporations to small locally and privately owned businesses, large hospitals to small clinics, healthcare and social agencies, and General Workplaces are implementing drug-free workplace programs to ensure productive workforces and safe workplaces — company features that ultimately result in increased profitability and success.

The information presented here is a very small sampling of the impact of both substance abuse in the workplace, drug testing and Drug Free Workplace Programs. You will have to draw your own conclusions as to the whether or not drug testing in the workplace is appropriate for your business.

If you are interested in drug testing, starting a Drug Free Workplace Program or Policy at your business, there are many resources available through a number of sources sited in the End Notes.

Or, SASSI can help.

Contact any of SASSI’s Administrative staff or Community Representatives to discuss getting started.